Outboard Brains

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In 1998, the philosophers Andy Clark and David J Chalmers called this interactive system, composed of the inner mind cooperating with the outer world of objects, ‘the extended mind’. Our ability to think, they claimed, could be altered and extended through technologies like writing. This modern idea expresses a much older notion about the entanglement of interior thought and exterior things. Though Clark and Chalmers wrote about this entanglement with a note of wonder, other scholars have been less sanguine about the ways that cognition extends itself. For Seneca, Zhu and Calvin, this ‘extension’ was just as readily understood as cognitive ‘degradation’, forerunning the alarm about smartphones and Google ‘making us stupid’ or ‘breaking’ our brains.

We’ve always been distracted, or at least worried that we are | Aeon Essays